Cetacean Morbillivirus-Associated Pathology: Knowns and Unknowns

The present minireview deals with the pathology of Cetacean Morbillivirus (CeMV) infection in free-ranging cetaceans. In this respect, while "classical" CeMV-associated lesions were observed in the lung, brain, and lymphoid tissues from striped dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba) and pilot whales (Globicephala melas) which were victims of the 1990-1992 and 2006-2008 epidemics in the Western Mediterranean, an apparent reduction in CeMV neurovirulence, along with a different viral antigen's tissue and cell distribution, were found during the 2010-2011 and the 2013 outbreaks in the same area. Of remarkable concern are also the documented CeMV ability to induce maternally acquired infections in wild cetaceans, coupled with the progressively expanding geographic and host range of the virus in both Hemispheres, as well as in conjunction with the intriguing forms of "brain-only" morbilliviral infection increasingly reported in Mediterranean-striped dolphins. Future research in this area should address the virus-host interaction dynamics, with particular emphasis on the cell receptors specifying viral tissue tropism in relation to the different cetacean species and to their susceptibility to infection, as well as to the CeMV strains circulating worldwide

Genetic engineering and animal infectious diseases

The present Letter to the Editor deals with the potential risks related to genetic engineering/selection in favour of resistance to infectious diseases in animals. Indeed, this appears to be a valuable option to counteract the serious risk of extinction faced by 15-40% of living species worldwide by the year 2050

Cetacean Host-Pathogen Interaction(s): Critical Knowledge Gaps

Within the broad range of viral and non-viral pathogens infecting cetaceans, Cetacean Morbillivirus (CeMV), Herpesvirus (HV), Brucella ceti, and Toxoplasma gondii are of special concern, due to their impact(s) on the health and conservation of free-ranging cetacean populations worldwide (1). The most \u201cparadigmatic\u201d example in this direction is represented by CeMV, which throughout the last 3 decades has caused more than 10 mass mortality outbreaks among different cetacean species and populations across the globe (2, 3)

Organizing for innovation: R&D projects, activities and partners

We explore how R&D project characteristics condition the governance of an R&D project and its individual activities. Prior literature has tried to understand the factors - both at the industry and at the firm level - that influence the way in which firms partner for innovation. In this paper, through the analysis of detailed data from a subsidiary of STMicroelectronics, we identify the main drivers of partner selection for innovation. Partnering or contracting with universities for innovation is common practice for developing new -original- knowledge, as opposed to applying existing knowledge to a problem. But firms are more reluctant to partner, especially with other firms, when that knowledge directly enhances their competitiveness. However, conditional on cooperation, partners are more likely to act individually when the project is strategically important. Contracting for innovation to universities or research centers, as opposed to partnering, happens for more experimental projects, where highly original knowledge is developed, and typically early on in the project.Innovation strategy; Technological innovation; R&D projects' organization; Partner selection;

The organization and performance evaluation of R&D projects in a dynamic environment

Faster technological development, shorter product life-cycles, and more intense global competition have transformed the current competitive environment for most firms. This new competitive landscape forces organizations to actively acquire knowledge, as a firm's competitive advantage is now more dependent on continuous knowledge development and enhancement. Therefore, knowledge has become a central theme in strategic management. Against this background, we argue that the knowledge characteristics of R&D projects are fundamental variables to explain governance decisions. Drawing upon the case of STMicroelectronics, we provide evidence that partnering or contracting with universities for innovation is common practice for developing new -original- knowledge, as opposed to applying existing knowledge, for solving a problem. However, the firm is more reluctant to partner, especially with another firm, when this knowledge directly enhances its competitiveness. Moreover, we find that R&D project performance is a bi-dimensional construct. One dimension picks up project efficacy and immediate benefits, while the other includes learning and long-term benefits. Though spanning firm boundaries for innovation does not seem to have appreciable effects on perceived project efficiency, it nonetheless brings about intertemporal benefits related to learning and capabilities development. In a dynamic environment, building knowledge may be more important than protecting it. Thus, an open innovation process may be an exceptionally effective way to build and develop the firm's technological future.Innovation strategy; R&D projects' organization; R&D projects' performance; open innovation;

Orcas and PCBs

The dramatic population decline which has been predicted to affect killer whales (Orcinus orca) on a global scale by the end of this century is of concern, with the levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in tissues from free-ranging orcas having been estimated to be among the highest in the animal kingdom (1). As in other cetacean and non-cetacean “top predators”, in fact, lipophilic PCBs may heavily accumulate in killer whales’ subcutaneous blubber, thereafter undergoing ad hoc “biomagnification” processes. Since these bioaccumulation and biomagnification dynamics are shared by many other persistent environmental pollutants - either “classical” (i.e. DDTs, dioxins, heavy metals, etc.) or “emerging” (i.e. PBDEs, PFAS, micro- and nanoplastics, etc.) -, that almost unvariably form “mixtures” to which aquatic organisms are chronically exposed via the marine food web(s) (2), one could wonder how the biological effects of PCBs may be effectively “dissected” from those of the other contaminants present in the aforementioned mixtures. Furthermore, the “endocrine disrupting” and the additional pathogenic activities of PCBs on host’s reproductive and immune functions are also known to be exerted by other organochlorine (OC) pollutants, the entry of which into exposed animals’ cells is mediated by aryl hydrocarbon receptors (AHRs) (3). This implies that the susceptibility of a given species to PCBs and, more in general, to OC contaminants could “ideally” result from the “sum” of its trophic position and tissue expression level(s) of AHRs. Alternatively, if not complementarily, such an increased tendency to accumulate high PCB tissue burdens might depend upon a metabolic capacity toward OC xenobiotics that is less efficient in orcas as compared to other odontocete cetacean species. The prominent PCB immunotoxicity (3) has been also linked to an increased sensitivity toward infectious pathogens, as in the case of the dramatic Cetacean Morbillivirus (CeMV) epidemic which affected, between 1990 and 1992, the population of Western Mediterranean striped dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba) (4). To the best of our knowledge, however, neither morbilliviral epidemics nor overt cases of morbilliviral infection have been hitherto reported in orcas, the susceptibility of which to CeMV is currently unknown. In this respect, should PCBs represent the major factor underlying the predicted killer whales’ population decline (1), one could reasonably expect a prevalence of “opportunistic” infections and/or neoplastic disease conditions (significantly) higher than in other cetacean and aquatic mammal species occupying a lower trophic level. Is this really the case? We are afraid that not enough, sufficiently reliable and robust data are available, thus far, to provide an affirmative or negative answer to the above query, considering also the “intrinsic” limitation due to the fact that an undefined number of orcas, similarly to their cetacean “heterospecifics”, will die in the open sea, with no possibility to perform a post mortem examination on them. Finally, the dramatically increasing pollution of global oceans and seas by plastics, micro- and nanoplastics would also deserve special concern, given that micro- and nanoplastics may act as “attractors and concentrators” for many chemical pollutants (including PCBs) (5), coupled with their long distance transfer across marine waters, as it has been recently described following the catastrophic tsunami in March 2011 along the Eastern coast of Japan (6). In conclusion, the herein dealt PCB-related alert (1), albeit of remarkable concern, appears to be influenced by a number of “environment”-dependent and “host”-related variables which should be carefully taken into account for an accurate evaluation of the effects of chronic PCB ingestion - and, more in general, exposure to OCs and other toxic pollutants - on killer whales’ health and conservation

Genomic and structural investigation on dolphin morbillivirus (DMV) in Mediterranean fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus).

Dolphin morbillivirus (DMV) has been deemed as one of the most relevant threats for fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus) being responsible for a mortality outbreak in the Mediterranean Sea in the last years. Knowledge of the complete viral genome is essential to understand any structural changes that could modify virus pathogenesis and viral tissue tropism. We report the complete DMV sequence of N, P/V/C, M, F and H genes identified from a fin whale and the comparison of primary to quaternary structure of proteins between this fin whale strain and some of those isolated during the 1990-'92 and the 2006-'08 epidemics. Some relevant substitutions were detected, particularly Asn52Ser located on F protein and Ile21Thr on N protein. Comparing mutations found in the fin whale DMV with those occurring in viral strains of other cetacean species, some of them were proven to be the result of diversifying selection, thus allowing to speculate on their role in host adaptation and on the way they could affect the interaction between the viral attachment and fusion with the target host cells

Genomic and structural investigation on Dolphin Morbillivirus (DMV) in Mediterranean fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus)

Dolphin Morbillivirus (DMV) has been deemed as one of the most relevant threats for fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus) being responsible for a mortality outbreak in the Mediterranean Sea in the last years. Knowledge of the complete viral genome is essential to understand any structural changes that could modify virus pathogenesis and viral tissue tropism. We report the complete DMV sequence of N, P/V/C, M, F and H genes identified from a fin whale and the comparison of primary to quaternary structure of proteins between this fin whale strain and some of those isolated during the 1990-‘92 and the 2006-‘08 epidemics. Some relevant substitutions were detected, particularly Asn52Ser located on F protein and Ile21Thr on N protein. Comparing mutations found in the fin whale DMV with those occurring in viral strains of other cetacean species, some of them were proven to be the result of diversifying selection, thus allowing to speculate on their role in host adaptation and on the way they could affect the interaction between the viral attachment and fusion with the target host cells